Pfiffner and R. As these terms are often used interchangeably and synonymously, it is pertinent to know the L. It is a means to carry out the necessary human beings, materials, tools, policy decisions made by political executive. So, public directs an organisation for the administration is government administration, accomplishment of pre-determined object.
According part of administration, which pertains to the to Peter Drucker management is associated administrative activities of the government. The other view is that administration is Woodrow Wilson associated with performing routine things in Public administration is the detailed and known settings in accordance with certain systematic application of law.
Every particular procedures, rules, and regulations. The application of law is an act of administration. Management is associated with performing functions like risk taking, dynamic, creative and L. White innovative functions. As administration is a determinative function. Organisation is the machinery compensation to an injured workman, the through which coordination is established quarantine of a sick child, the removal of litter between administration and management.
It includes 1. White observes that although public government activity-police, education, health, administration varies in form and objects, and construction of public works, conservation, although the administration of public and social security, and many others.
The conduct private affairs differs at many points, there is an of public affairs in advanced civilisations underlying similarity, if not identity. As an requires the employment of almost every integral aspect of such generic concept, public profession and skill-engineering, law, medicine, administration could be related to that type of and teaching; the crafts, the technical administration, which operates within a specific specialties, the office skills, and many others.
All the acts of the The traditional definitions of Public officials of a government, from the peon in a Administration, which are given above reflect remote office to the head of a state in the the view that the Public Administration is only capital, constitute public administration. It reflect that it H. Simon, D. Specifically in policy formulation and covers the three excluded are judicial and legislative agencies branches of the government. In this context, we within the government and non-governmental may reflected on the definition offered by F.
According to them Public Administration: In this context we can reflect the Corson and Harris definition offered by F. Nigro and L. According to Prof. The difference between the two views relates to 1.
The correct meaning of Public Administration, that is, Integral and the term administration would however, depend Managerial. Henri between the time an enforcement agency Fayol and L. White are the supporters of this assumes jurisdiction and the last break is view.
Coordinating means inter-relating the work of various divisions, sections and other parts of 1. In the modern welfare state people Budgeting means fiscal planning, control and expect many things — a wide variety of services accounting. In this context public administration provides a number According to Gullick the POSDCoRB activities of welfare and social security services to the are common to all organisations. They are the people. Besides, it has to manage government common problems of management which are owned industries and regulate private found in different agencies regardless of the industries.
Public administration covers every nature of the work they do. The critics pointed out that the 1. The POSDCoRB view over looks the discipline, that is subject of studies, comprises fact that deferent agencies are faced with of the following: different administrative problems, which are The POSDCoRB view peculiar to the nature of the services, they Several writers have defined the scope of render and the functions they performed.
The public administration in varying terms. A major ordinating reporting the Budgeting. Therefore, the outline the things to be done, the methods to be scope of administration is defined very adopted to accomplish the purpose. Organisation means the establishment of the The Subject Matter View formal structure of authority through which the We all know that public administration deals not work is sub-divided, arranged, defined and only with the processes but also with the coordinated.
Private administration, also have important specialised techniques of on the other hand is, concerned with their own which are not covered by administration of private business organisation POSDCoRB techniques. For example, if you and is distinct from public administration. Let us take Police Administration it has its own elaborate this techniques in crime detection, maintenance of Law and Order, etc.
Simon, the same with other services too. Therefore, the Peter Drucker, etc. Public administration has two important Felix A. Nigro has pointed out that government aspects, namely deciding and doing things. The is also different from private organisation, as no first provides the basis for the second. One private company can equal to it in size and cannot conceive of any discipline without diversity of activities.
Thus Public administration According to Sir Josiah Stamp, the four is a broad-ranging and an amorphous principles, which differentiate public from combination of theory and practice. In other words, administration revenues and heads of expenditure. Its nature depends upon the nature of Public administration is accountable to its the setting and goals with which it is concerned. It involves policies and actions of however small it may be.
However, most of immense complexity. Its fullest possible the objectives of public administration can understanding requires the wisdom of many neither be measured in money terms nor specialists as will as the key participants in checked by accountancy methods.
The more important distinguishing features of According to Paul H. Appleby public Public administration may be described under administration is different from private the following sub-heads: administration. No non- another feature, which distinguishes it from the governmental institution has the breadth of private administration. The primary purpose of government. Public Administration is Prestige: Public administrators who serve in subject to political direction and control.
This is the Government enjoy high status and prestige the primary distinction between the two. It is Public Gaze: All the actions of public necessary to emphasise the fact that popular administration are exposed to wide public gaze political processes, which are the essence of because the public closely watches it.
This democracy, can only work through does not happen in private administration. It is rule realised outside, by virtue of its public nature, oriented. The responsibilities of public the way in which it is subject to public scrutiny administrators are fixed by a set of and outcry. This interest often runs to details of constitutional practices, laws and regulations.
Consistency of treatment: A government According to Appleby private administration official is required by law to maintain a high cannot claim the breadth of scope, impact degree of consistency in his dealings with the and consideration of the public public. He has to observe the principle of administration.
When compared to private administration, one finds that the degree of Public accountability: Public accountability is efficiency in public organisations is at a lower the hallmark of Public administration in a level. Good service and products enhance reputation. Organisations need 13 both marketing and public relations. The communication aspects of these matters, including 22 how to communicate with employees and external stakeholders, would normally 23 involve public relations expertise.
Control of employee communication and the division 25 between what is rightly communicated by human resources and public relations are 26 areas of potential debate. This might involve communication with employees who are 28 located within the local community and also with potential employees, and again 29 require careful assignment of responsibility for communication. Lawyers are concerned that what is said may rebound on the organisa- 42 tion and often point out that there is no requirement to say anything.
They value openness and 49 want to maintain dialogue. They are also acutely aware of the need to respond quickly to given situations — again the legal process usually takes time. Product recalls and libel cases usually include both 3 a public relations and a legal dimension and it is not uncommon for legal representa- 4 tives and public relations professionals to speak on the same issue for an organisation.
As expert boundary-spanners, public relations professionals can play a key role 13 in the dominant coalition by gathering and interpreting information from the external 14 and internal environments and presenting this as strategic intelligence. On the basis of 15 this, organisations can adapt and change or initiate a dialogue so that the continued 16 support of their key stakeholding publics can be assured.
This 24 has clearly demonstrated the variety of range and emphasis that public relations can 25 have and has indicated the panoply of skills the expert practitioner requires. In short there is a call for 29 genuine public relations within the management context. Indeed, Cutlip et al. They go on to suggest that the latter contributes to making the democratic 24 process more effective. Private 40 income was necessary as the professions offered little pay. Later, specialised know- 41 ledge became the basis for entry Cutlip et al.
Most of its practitioners have little training in the 32 social sciences. Few have been trained in public relations. We must admit that 33 many people today who call themselves public relations practitioners still do not 34 measure up to professional standards.
They also have a set of values 40 and a code of ethics that discourage the use of their knowledge and technical skills 41 for antisocial purposes. Years of training are necessary to become a doctor, lawyer or accountant, 5 followed by more years of on-the-job training.
The Commission on 12 Public Relations Education recommended that the content of undergraduate and post- 13 graduate courses should include mass communications, PR theories, media relations 14 techniques, research methodology, case studies, work placements and PR management 15 Cutlip et al.
A further commission in added ethics, law and evaluation to 16 the list IPRA This was updated by the work of the Public Relations Education Commission set up by the Public Relations Society of America PRSA in , which 18 looked at the knowledge and skills which should be included in undergraduate and 19 postgraduate courses.
We 28 also strongly recommend [teachers] to continue to develop their professional experi- 29 ence while they hold teaching appointments. It was felt that this would raise the status of the profes- 38 sion in general, as well as that of the Institute. The IPR moved towards tightening its 39 entry requirements. Using this matrix as a base, the IPR approved six courses in , including 45 vocational, undergraduate, postgraduate and masters programmes in the UK.
Since then, the number of approved courses has risen to eighteen. Mindful of the need to maintain standards 39 in its delivery, these courses are only available at a few venues again, details on the 40 IPR website. IPR 47 research carried out in found that 98 per cent of senior managers in the industry 48 expected entrants to have a degree IPR This has led to a major initiative to 4 improve the commitment to training within the industry.
The IPR has also started to 5 benchmark the provision of commercial training organisations with its Approved 6 Training Provider kitemark.
Public relations practitioners. The 34 emphasis is on practical techniques. The technocratic model is more associated with 35 professions, and consists of a systematic knowledge base founded on academic disci- 36 plines, the application of that base to practice, and supervised placements in practice.
The 38 third model, or post-technocratic, emphasises professional competence and bridges the 39 gap between education and employment. All IPR workshops now carry 14 an indication of their level, and the overall structure can be used by both individuals 15 and companies when planning their training requirements.
Courses of the Approved 16 Training Providers are also linked to level and subject. The framework has been constantly updated, and contains an indication of the skills needed to ensure that PR 18 practitioners can use new technology see later discussions on the implications of new 19 technology in Chapters 18, 19 and The PR sector has seen consistent 27 growth.
However, the industry has not been able to tool up 29 fast enough to satisfy demand. This will need to change. It has strict criteria for membership, and is developing a Diploma 36 in Consultancy Management. We will look at the content of these codes below. One problem with 39 the raising of standards within PR is that these organisations do not represent all of 40 those working in PR in the UK.
The IPR has over 6, members, of which around 41 1, are students on the approved courses. The size of 44 the circulation of the trade publication PR Week is often used as a guide, and this is 45 currently 17, Many people may work in a public relations capacity for an organ- 46 isation, but may not be called a public relations practitioner.
Some estimates of the 47 numbers in PR are as high as 40,, but around 20, would probably be more 48 accurate. Despite the numbers game, it can be seen that the two associations account 49 for a maximum of two-thirds of the industry. Although still 11 small by national association criteria, the organisation represents around members 12 in over 70 countries, although there has been talk of it merging with the IPR as the 13 latter adopts a more global outlook.
Discrimination on any grounds is unacceptable professional 31 practice. Conditions to be taken into account when negotiating 33 fees for work are set out. Other recommended practice 36 papers issued by the IPR cover public relations and the law; the role and parameters 37 of PR practice; the use of embargoes, fees and methods of charging; and one of the 38 major issues which the IPR has been campaigning against, the use of charges for inclu- 39 sion of editorial in certain publications.
The IPR undertook a major consultation on its 40 Code in , and the revised Code is published on its website. Of course, the Charter is written with the members in mind, and 43 these are consultancies rather than individuals. Accuracy, openness about interests and regard to the public interest 48 are also stressed. There are recommendations for those in 2 investor relations about dealing with price sensitive information.
Healthcare profes- 3 sionals are directed to legislation and other relevant codes, and must ensure balanced 4 and accurate information is given. Parliamentary lobbyists have an extensive code which 5 relates to their conduct towards MPs and clients. The quality of consul- 9 tancy has improved over the past few years, but there is an increasing gulf between 10 those who are keen to add value and to make that value tangible, and those who 11 want to continue to trade on some black box mystique.
The latter are dinosaurs. In 38 per cent of the 16 countries, PR had been criticised for unethical conduct Lloyd However, as Director General 25 of the IPR, Colin Farrington, says 26 27 We are not equipped with police powers to investigate, and are reliant on complaints 28 before we act.
Whilst some might feel that as we are not a statutory body our disci- 29 plinary procedures are our own affair, the courts would expect us to act in a defen- 30 sible way. There 41 are ten elements in the CMS, and member consultancies must score at least 50 per cent 42 in each section to pass. Client satisfaction must be measured and service delivery moni- 46 tored.
A commitment to training and development is also included. A lot of people have put a 9 lot of work into developing the professional standards, and we are committed to 10 upholding them. It is synonymous with trust and trust is the lubricant that 16 makes our practice function. Two years later 20 [he]. He was forced to resign.
A further report on this topic was published in October 8 A review paper was then published, and further evidence was sought by May 9 The three bodies stated that they had adopted supple- 14 mentary and virtually identical codes to govern practice in this area. The concept of social accountability is 46 becoming more widespread, and it is not only companies like the Body Shop and the 47 Co-operative Bank that are setting up social auditing systems. A report was commis- 48 sioned by BT at the beginning of to examine what roles companies could and 49 should take in society, and whether undertaking these roles was good for business Future Foundation They recognise that in order to achieve this, they 6 must get the message across about ethical and professional working standards, to counter 7 the historical beginnings of the industry in press agentry and publicity.
Whether or not 8 the IPR achieves chartered status, it has shown an increasing maturity in addressing 9 the concerns of the industry as a whole, rather than concentrating simply on the concerns 10 of its members.
The problem, ironically in an industry which prides itself on the ability 11 of its practitioners to communicate, is one of getting the message across to the rele- 12 vant stakeholders in business and government.
The following case study demonstrates the importance of a strategic approach to corporate communication and 29 illustrates what can happen if symmetrical or reciprocal relationships with key stake- 30 holders are not effectively managed.
The new bank would operate 7 only through telephones and computers. His 10 Christian Broadcasting Network reaches 55 million viewers a year. Utilising the internet and other media, these groups co-ordinated 19 attacks on the deal.
They set up websites with links to the media and the bank to help 20 the public to learn more about the issue and to register their condemnation. Media coverage became dominated by reports of city 44 councils, universities, trade unions, charities and churches threatening to close their 45 accounts. A joint state- 2 ment said, 3 4 Dr Pat Robertson and Peter Burt, following a meeting in Boston yesterday, agreed 5 that the changed external circumstances made the proposed joint venture.
In reaching this agreement Dr Robertson expressed regret that the media 7 comments about him had made it impossible to proceed. We would like to see the bank reaching out to minority groups 18 to rebuild its reputation for equal opportunities, which before the Pat Robertson busi- 19 ness was very good.
The bank failed to predict the 28 strength of public reaction after announcing the deal with Dr Robertson. We have a long- 30 standing commitment to ethical values, tolerance, equal opportunities, and non- 31 discrimination in all our dealings. Determination to uphold these principles as we 32 develop our business world-wide will continue to characterise the Bank of Scotland. They not 44 only do things right — they do the right things.
In doing so, they act like 45 good citizens. However, its actions teaming up with Robertson and 3 defending the deal by attempting to distinguish between the ethics of commercial deci- 4 sions and the personal views of business partners is not congruent with the core values 5 its statement expresses. At the time it with- 11 drew from the venture, only accounts had been closed by British customers 12 compared with more than 21, opened during the same period Guardian, 13 Clearly the potential gains would vastly outweigh the losses.
As Fombrun 22 81 explains, 23 24 Corporate reputations have bottom line effects. The economic value of a corporate reputation can 28 therefore be gauged by the excess market value of its securities.
These stakes should be recognised by those whose actions may 10 impinge upon them. Individuals should recognise that their behaviour can have reper- 11 cussions upon society. They should act in a responsible way that does not damage 12 others. Indeed, the BoS could be deemed to have transgressed several of the 29 tenets of stakeholderism. The bank opted for sustainable development. Effective public relations strategists are involved in 49 organisational decision making see Chapter 4.
Public relations should do formative research to scan the environment 14 and the behaviour of the organisations to identify these consequences. At this 21 stage focus groups are particularly helpful. The 27 media play a major role in the creation and expansion of issues. At this stage, research should segment publics. In doing so it should follow steps 4—7. Indeed it argues that by adopting a stakeholder approach a 15 company will be well managed and therefore able to deliver greater value to its share- 16 holders.
Not only did the internet 33 enable pressure groups to mobilise public pressure; it also facilitated fast and effective 34 access to information about the American preacher. We did not expect that the controversy he was associated with there would 45 have transferred to here where he has no political constituency or business.
However, 15 both the bank and Robertson were often reported as being unresponsive, refusing to 16 comment or blaming media distortion for their predicament. Eventually Robertson changed his PR approach and invited the press to America to visit his organisation and 18 speak to him directly. However, media views were already entrenched.
They have got in a muddle. The next chapter examines 33 whether corporate images can be managed, and subsequent chapters consider other 34 aspects of corporate PR such as public affairs, issues management and corporate social 35 responsibility. An effective communication strategy would also utilise the range of 36 approaches for communicating with different stakeholder groups examined in Part III. It is a vital aspect of motivating a wide range of stakeholders including voters, employees, shareholders and consumers.
The Body Shop is socially responsible, it cares 22 about animals and the environment. As such, identity includes design aspects such 27 as logos, colour, typeface and house style but also embraces less tangible elements 28 such as behaviour, culture, values, mission, communication style and associations 29 with personalities, charities, political parties or other organisations via donations or 30 sponsorship.
Rule Britannia or cool Britannia? Getting the identity right is 32 strategically important. Some of the results are shown in Table 7.
This chapter will explore the meaning of corporate 38 identity and image. It will then consider identity and image management and conclude 39 with a case study exploring an identity change programme. To formulate an 48 image, publics interpret an identity in a wider context with broader frames of reference. Many people exposed 22 to these aspects of its identity may well formulate an image of Nike as a high quality 23 and fashionable arbiter of good design.
The 36 Nike case illustrates this well. And, if so, how? Clearly though, controlling identity is not simple or straight- 2 forward. A sans 29 serif typeface, favoured by the tabloids, is often deemed to invoke modernity. The change in visuals was interpreted as 32 symbolising a major ideological shift from hard left to centrist politics. In addition to avoiding negative 40 connotations, technical, creative, fashion and cost requirements all have to be consid- 41 ered.
It includes the existence or absence and distribution of status 48 symbols such as executive washrooms, plush carpets and parking spaces. This aspect 49 will be referred to later as part of a consideration of organisational culture. Not all organisations want to represent themselves as a 6 homogenised unit though. Some are decentralised and a corporate identity should 7 signal this. Clearly, organisations should involve a range of stakeholders in 22 determining core philosophies and values and clearly communicate the agreed goals.
The concept of CSPs fosters a notion of an organic process of 32 developing and communicating organisational images rather than a top—down approach 33 which limits staff to static, agreed perceptions. And a plethora of recipes for changing organisational cultures are 44 currently on offer.
The cultural web illustrates the complexity 31 of organisational culture and, in practical terms, the areas that should be investigated 32 as part of any attempt to audit culture as part of corporate identity.
It could also be argued as being a similar concept to corporate 40 personality. In terms of trying to effect a particular corporate 15 image, however, the notion of a corporate portrait not an actual personality but a care- 16 fully constructed replica of a personality is useful. Whether this perception was fair or not will be debated 37 elsewhere. The point here is that public relations practitioners must carefully consider 38 the motives and ethics of their practice.
Thus, it is crucial that we probe the structure and meaning 44 of that process of representation. Does this mean that one person really 14 knows the identity of another person after having read his or her passport? Truly 16 to know the identity of people, we must go much further. We must have long discus- sions with them, we must ask them about their tastes and convictions, and we must 18 learn their histories.
Stakeholder analysis techniques discussed in 25 Chapter 6 should be used to identify the relevant stakeholders to be used in the research. So a combination 29 of research methodologies must be adopted, targeted at a range of stakeholders.
These 30 could include content analysis of corporate documents, surveys, focus groups, inter- 31 views and critical incident analysis. Narrowing the gap 42 between actual and desired image is the objective of a corporate identity programme. As Grunig and Hunt explain, 12 13 Too often, management wants an easy way to gain the loyalty of employees and 14 get more work out of them.
For example, 19 if an organisation professes innovation as a core value, but has a highly bureaucratic 20 structure involving layers of decision-making and centralised power, then innovation 21 will not be fostered.
Its task is to study and document the way in which the different parts of the 31 organisation present themselves in terms of the three traditional areas of design — 32 factories, showrooms and so on; product, packaging and information material; vehicle 33 liveries, signs, brochures, advertising, instruction manuals and every other form of 34 graphics.
What does it all look like? What message is it meant to convey? Such 6 a plan would often aim to manipulate the variables of corporate identity to ensure they 7 suggest a coherent and desirable personality. But is it really possible to manipulate the 8 appropriate variables symbolism, communication and behaviour effectively?
However, consultants sometimes claim just this. Corporate 21 identity can, therefore, never be wholly managed. Provided readers 25 retain a realistic mindset about what can really be effected, a number of useful multi- 26 step corporate identity management plans are available in the literature: Dowling , 27 Olins , Bernstein , van Riel , Abratt and Ind It should enable 31 the following questions to be answered: 32 33 1 What is our current image?
Problem analysis 2 3 4 2. Current positioning 5 6 7 6. Gap analysis 8 9 10 11 3. Translation 4. External image 5. Competition into CI mix research market analysis 12 13 14 15 7a. Maintaining 7b. Adjusting current 7c. Determination 16 current positioning positioning of new position 18 19 7d. Maintaining 7e. Adjusting 20 CI policy CI mix 21 22 23 8. Determination of 24 consequences for CI mix 25 26 27 28 8a. Personality 8b. Behaviour 8c. Communication 8d. Symbolism 29 30 31 9.
In this adapted version, feedback loops inserted between each 45 type of evaluation and the beginning of the process problem analysis indicate the 46 addition of a further step. The feedback loop 49 also represents the cyclical nature of corporate identity management.
It must not be seen as a one off procedure but as an ongoing strategic process. Feedback loops are credible 8 only if the organisation has the ability to listen to what it hears and the desire to 9 act upon what it discovers.
At that time, research was just beginning to demonstrate the link between 26 poverty and ill health. The College worked to improve standards of health and living 27 conditions and campaigned for the introduction of district nurses to care for women in 28 their homes. Within a generation, infant mortality in Scotland was reduced by 50 per 29 cent. Some 3, students from 50 countries worldwide study a wide range 35 of subjects, from dietetics to drama, from radiography to retail business and, of course, 36 corporate communication.
However, 49 it aims to achieve the university title by Rather than inserting the new word into the existing logo 9 however, the Principal and senior management recognised the necessity of a more funda- 10 mental and wide-ranging corporate image audit to help the University College achieve 11 its future strategic aims. Not 13 just thinking about how we look, but about our culture, our values, and how we commu- 14 nicate an accurate image of who we are.
Having expounded often dearly held opinions, partici- 6 pants could then be led through the group processes17 up the conceptual ladder to a 7 stage when valid and interesting views were proffered. Some were commonly well regarded by 15 participants whilst different publics held distinctive views about some important aspects. This is particularly 13 interesting in relation to the discussion of consistency above. Figure 7. The 35 new visual identity will be consistently used across applications ranging from letter- 36 heads to vehicle livery, uniforms to websites.
Symbolism has 41 clearly been affected by the QMUC corporate identity plan. But what about the other 42 important aspects, behaviour and communication?
A number of 45 initiatives have been launched in response. Staff are involved in determining their own criteria for success. My job is to look at the way we need to behave 33 in order to deliver in these areas. Then, a full attitudes 37 survey has been commissioned to determine staff views. As Wright 44 explains, 45 46 Our research will identify the management style needed to help QMUC develop and 47 achieve future success. We will then design a training programme to help effect 48 this approach.
I anticipate that it will involve developing coaching skills associated 49 with empowering staff and a communication style aimed at giving and receiving feedback. Broadly speaking, corporate 6 identity was originally seen as the visual symbols an organisation used such as logos, 7 house style and other representations associated with design.
For some practitioners, 8 that view still persists. However, more recently the concept of corporate identity has 9 been broadened to include linkages between corporate strategy and communication. For a more detailed consideration of the concept, see Chapters 4 and 6. For further 36 information refer to Vernelle 28—9. The interactive corporation tries to get a reasonably accurate agenda 23 of public issues that it should be concerned with.
An oft-quoted 33 example of this is the growing importance of the environmental lobby. Issues management is therefore preventative. This version of events is then picked 31 up by credible individuals or groups in the dissemination phase.
The example quoted by Femers et al. The 35 problem with the chip eventually cost Intel several million dollars. In the third, estab- 36 lishment, phase, popular media deal with the issue and it becomes known to a large part 37 of society. Finally, public interest declines and the issue drops off the media agenda. Accompanying 45 this has been a substantial rise in support for pressure groups that target those multi- 46 national corporations in order to highlight their polices on.
He also warns against the rise 8 of anti-scientism. John Vidal 13 reported that shareholders in Huntingdon Life Sciences, which tests on animals 14 for the pharmaceutical industry and has been the focus of much pressure group activity, 15 had been sent a letter by the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection Reform 16 Group AVRG that warned them to sell their shares or face having their homes pick- eted.
One individual who refused had been the victim of a peaceful demonstration 18 outside his house. Companies are having to become more aware not only of their own 19 policies, but of those of other companies that they may invest in. Few companies 27 had corporate strategies in place to deal with the problem, and tended to rely on media 28 publicity to get their message across rather than taking a strategic approach to the issues 29 raised by pressure groups Hamilton Michael Murphy notes the importance of cultural identity.
Whilst 36 huge trading blocs such as the European Union have been established, and trends towards 37 deregulation in the marketplace are apparent, there has also been a growth in national- 38 ism. This has manifested itself in the UK in devolution to the national assemblies in 39 Wales and Scotland.
Greater access to information allows people to make 46 more informed choices. Lobbying can be either defensive, designed 14 to abolish or amend an existing law, or offensive, aimed at pushing the authorities to 15 create a law.
An example of offensive lobbying was the successful Snowdrop Campaign 16 by parents of children killed at Dunblane, which quickly forced a change in the regulations on private hand guns.
The key to lobbying is to understand the legisla- 18 tive process, and how that of the UK and the different national assemblies operate 19 within the European Community. Increasingly, competition on an international scale 20 means that it is necessary to take wide-ranging cultural and legislative practices into 21 account. For example, Shell found that its decision to dispose of Brent Spar in the 22 North Sea provoked a reaction from pressure groups across Europe.
In the end, despite 23 the rationality of its argument, a well-orchestrated campaign caused the company to 24 change its policy. He also noted that groups are not equal in 28 wealth and while some can hire public relations consultants, others cannot. The later a campaign begins, the fewer 36 choices are open. Miller Roche 23 names four common lobbying mistakes: 37 38 1 Contacts are no use unless you have a sound case.
They may 46 take on an in-house specialist, as is most likely in large organisations that need to 47 be constantly aware of issues and legislation. However, there have been calls for 5 regulation of this process see Chapter 5. The problem remains that many lobbyists are not members of any 13 of these professional associations and so cannot be governed by any of their rules. Bryceson still carries out 15 lobbying work on a pro bono basis for certain special interest groups he supports.
Where 16 does lobbying start — is it only when someone is paid to do it that regulation comes into play? This changed the way that lobbyists worked and shifted emphasis onto 24 government advisors. Parliament was also noticeably younger and contained more 25 women and ethnic MPs. Relationships had to be formed between lobbyists and these 26 new MPs.
By simply paying attention to an issue and 48 neglecting others, the media will affect public opinion. Over 90 per cent of answers are 8 written, and are a good way to bring a matter to the attention of Ministers and other 9 MPs. Lobbyists may seek to persuade an MP to ask a question on behalf of a particu- 10 lar organisation or to support a particular cause. All questions and answers appear in 11 Hansard. Whitehall departments and the European Commission draft policy and 23 implement decisions formally made by Ministers and Commissioners.
Advisory 27 committees and task forces in the UK and Committees of Experts in the EC, made up 28 of outside specialists, may also act as consultation bodies. The European 43 Council consists of all heads of state and meets twice a year. The Council of Ministers 44 includes ministerial representatives of the member states, in proportion to their popu- 45 lations.
The Presidency is held by member states in turn. These institutions are supported by 49 civil servants and other advisers. The legislative process is mainly governed by the Council, the Commission which has the right to initiate proposals and the Parliament. Professional lobbyists would be 20 expected to know which element of the system to approach and how that element would 21 wish to be treated. By treating receivers of information as stakeholder publics, lobby- 22 ists can increase the likely success of their case.
Due thought needs to be given to how 23 the system would receive the information and respond to it. Miller also suggests that 24 the bulk of issues are settled by negotiation, rather than by a simple lobbying process.
Some of the global organ- 33 isations have competing priorities. The World Bank places an emphasis on cash crops 34 like tobacco over subsistence farming, yet the World Health Organization discourages 35 tobacco use. The remit of the new body was still 40 to investigate and report on proposed mergers, but the emphasis shifted towards consid- 41 ering whether decisions would mean better services for consumers.
The chair of the 42 Commission Dr Derek Morris stated that the Commission would prioritise consumer 43 interest over all others, and that its proceedings would be more transparent. But the importance 48 of support from third parties has grown.
Whilst members of the public were not able to make 3 submissions, they were able to attend hearings which previously would have been held 4 in private Freeman Railtrack has a long-term national agenda. The second case study 8 looks at the Voice of the Listener and Viewer VLV , a small pressure group depen- 9 dent on member subscriptions for its income.
Despite this, VLV has held several confer- 10 ences with well-respected speakers and has been invited to submit responses to 11 government bodies. The company owns the rail infrastructure, including track, signals, bridges and all 2, stations. Whilst privatisation freed Railtrack from the necessity 18 of approaching the Treasury each year to gain funds to keep the trains running for the 19 next twelve months, the rail industry receives a substantial although decreasing level 20 of public subsidy and is therefore accountable to the government.
Privatisation has also 21 increased expectations of the industry, not only from politicians but also from the general 22 public. Whilst Railtrack does not run trains, and its customers are the train operating 23 companies rather than passengers, the infrastructure obviously substantially affects the 24 travelling experience. It is concerned with the continuous conflict between the economic performance of the firm as measured by revenue, costs and profits due to the shareholders and the social performance of the firm — which is more difficult to measure and represented by obligations to employees, customers, creditors, members of society in general.
Equity in an organization Equity is an ethical and legal principle underlying the regulation of all social relations in the spirit of justice, equality and justice, cooperation and mutual respect 2. Equity is a behavior based on rigorous compliance with mutual rights and duties, on equally meeting the interests, rights and liabilities of each of us.
On the organizational level, equity has to do with perceptions that people have about how they are treated compared to others. Being treated with equity is to be treated fairly and impartially compared with a group of people or other relevant person 3. The equity theory proposed by S. Adams and J. Weick is based on two basic assumptions about human behavior: 1. People engage in an evaluation of their social relations, which are seen as an "exchange" in which they make contributions investing time and effort and expect some rewards in return.
People evaluate the fairness of an exchange by comparing their situation with the situation of others. According to this theory, people assign a specific value to different investments and outcomes, based on their perceived importance. A state of equity occurs when the report between rewards and their corresponding personal investment is equal to the ratio of these two elements for another person who occupies a similar position.
If a person perceives his report as being less than that of another person an inequity is perceived. Moral rights of employees The right to work As one of the fundamental human rights, the right to work is enshrined in the Declaration of Human Rights and the European Charter of Human Rights. The right to work derives on one hand from the right to life, because work provides the foundation necessary for subsistence and on the other hand, from the right to respect as the ability to create goods and means through labor is a major source of self-respect for each individual.
In the context of modern economy heated debates are held around the question whether the right to work is by itself definable as the right of each individual to be offered employment. However, private companies will be able to provide jobs only to people whose work is appreciated as having value for the employer, according to standards set by him.
Employment and wage payment are possible only if a company manages to produce and sell its goods and services profitably. Under the conditions of market economy, private firms wish to build a wage pay system according to the ratio between supply and demand of human resources in the workforce. This rule, however, defies moral sense, because some forms of activity are much better paid than others, even if the effort, expertise and skills required to pursue them are not very disproportionate.
Some companies try to reduce the gap between the wages of employees by introducing a reward system based on performance. For such a system to become motivating for high performance a very clear link is needed between reward and performance level. Performance evaluation is one of the most important issues of ethics in human resources. Some ethical dimensions of performance evaluation are: the evaluator must be perceived by those evaluated as fair and credible; information obtained by the evaluators in the evaluation should be used strictly for purposes of the assessment being made and should involve a degree of privacy; the evaluation should be based on a number of methods and it should come from several sources; the evaluator will have to respect the dignity of those evaluated; the evaluating persons should not be in a conflict of interest when performing their duty1.
Other moral right of employees The right to humane working conditions, in which the psychosomatic health and integrity of employees is not endangered, is one of the ethical issues concerning the status of employees. In the case of occupations involving considerable risk taking, the ethical principle of fully aware consent must be respected.
This involves informing the employees about the dangers they run by accepting the job. The right to exercise discretion concerning the private life is another moral right of employees. However, beyond the legal framework, certain moral duties of employees to the firms where they work are being shaped, duties that are sometimes controversial. One of these duties is loyalty to the firm. A company that offers job security, support and understanding at difficult times for employees has every right to expect from them a certain degree of fidelity and loyalty.
The problem in question here is: How far should this corporate loyalty go? What happens when the conduct required at the workplace is contrary to widely accepted moral standards in society or the individual's ethical standards? For example, what happens if the company violated laws on toxic emissions and this comes to the attention of employees? Is it morally allowable for the employees to denounce this felony or would this be an unacceptable deviation from standard corporate loyalty?
Workplace discrimination By workplace discrimination we understand any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference made based on race, nationality, ethnicity, religion, social class, belief, sexual orientation, age, disability, non-contagious chronic disease, HIV infection or belonging to a disadvantaged category, which has as purpose or effect the restriction or removal of recognition, use or exercise on an equal footing of any human rights and fundamental freedoms recognized by law in the politic, economic, social and cultural fields of or in any other areas of public life2.
Positive discrimination, a concept developed in the USA and sometimes called affirmative action, defines a type of discrimination in favor of an individual based on race, sex or marital status.
Therefore, another person becomes disadvantaged on the same grounds3.
0コメント